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Health, Safety & Environment

Mechanistic complexities of sulfite oxidase: An enzyme with multiple domains, subunits, and cofactors

Sulfite oxidase SO deficiency, an inherited disease that causes severe neonatal neurological problems and early death, arises from defects in the biosynthesis of the molybdenum  cofactor Moco general sulfite oxidase deficiency or from inborn errors in the SUOX gene for SO isolated sulfite oxidase deficiency, ISOD. The X-ray structure of the highly homologous homonuclear dimeric chicken sulfite oxidase cSO provides a template for locating ISOD mutation sites in human sulfite oxidase hSO. Catalysis occurs within an individual subunit of hSO, but mutations that disrupt the hSO dimer are pathological. The catalytic cycle of SO involves five metal oxidation states MoVI, MoV, MoIV, FeIII, FeII, two intramolecular electron transfer IET steps, and couples a two-electron oxygen atom transfer reaction at the Mo center with two one-electron transfers from the integral b-type heme to exogenous cytochrome c, the physiological oxidant. Several ISOD examples are analyzed using steady-state, stopped-flow, and laser flash photolysis kinetics and physical measurements of recombinant variants of hSO and native cSO. In the structure of cSO, Mo…Fe = 32 Å, much too long for efficient IET through the protein. Interdomain motion that brings the Mo and heme centers closer together to facilitate IET is supported indirectly by decreasing the length of the interdomain tether, by changes in the charges of surface residues of the Mo and heme domains, as well as by preliminary molecular dynamics calculations. However, direct dynamic measurements of interdomain motion are in their infancy.

H. Enemark,Mechanistic complexities of sulfite oxidase: An enzyme with multiple domains, subunits, and cofactors, J Inorg Biochem, 2023, 247, 112312.

Sulfite Impairs Bioenergetics and Redox Status in Neonatal Rat Brain: Insights into the Early Neuropathophysiology of Isolated Sulfite Oxidase and Molybdenum Cofactor Deficiencies

Isolated sulfite oxidase (ISOD) and molybdenum cofactor (MoCD) deficiencies are genetic diseases biochemically characterized by the toxic accumulation of sulfite in the tissues of patients, including the brain. Neurological dysfunction and brain abnormalities are commonly observed soon after birth, and some patients also have neuropathological alterations in the prenatal period (in utero). Thus, we investigated the effects of sulfite on redox and mitochondrial homeostasis, as well as signaling proteins in the cerebral cortex of rat pups. One-day-old Wistar rats received an intracerebroventricular administration of sulfite (0.5 µmol/g) or vehicle and were euthanized 30 min after injection. Sulfite administration decreased glutathione levels and glutathione S-transferase activity, and increased heme oxygenase-1 content in vivo in the cerebral cortex. Sulfite also reduced the activities of succinate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, and respiratory chain complexes II and II-III. Furthermore, sulfite increased the cortical content of ERK1/2 and p38. These findings suggest that redox imbalance and bioenergetic impairment induced by sulfite in the brain are pathomechanisms that may contribute to the neuropathology of newborns with ISOD and MoCD. Sulfite disturbs antioxidant defenses, bioenergetics, and signaling pathways in the cerebral cortex of neonatal rats. CII: complex II; CII-III: complex II-III; CK: creatine kinase; GST: glutathione S-transferase; HO-1: heme oxygenase-1; SDH: succinate dehydrogenase; SO3(2-): sulfite.

Pramio, M. Grings, A. G. da Rosa, R. T. Ribeiro, N. M. Glanzel, M. F. Signori, M. B. Marcuzzo, L. D. Bobermin, A. T. S. Wyse, A. Quincozes-Santos, M. Wajner, and G. Leipnitz,Sulfite Impairs Bioenergetics and Redox Status in Neonatal Rat Brain: Insights into the Early Neuropathophysiology of Isolated Sulfite Oxidase and Molybdenum Cofactor Deficiencies, Cell Mol Neurobiol, 2023.

SULFITE OXIDASE− Molecular mechanism of intramolecular electron transfer in dimeric sulfite oxidase

Sulfite oxidase SOX  is a homodimeric molybdoheme enzyme that oxidizes sulfite to sulfate at the molybdenum center. Following substrate oxidation, molybdenum is reduced and subsequently regenerated by two sequential electron transfers ETs  via heme to cytochrome c. SOX harbors both metals in spatially separated domains within each subunit, suggesting that domain movement is necessary to allow intramolecular ET. To address whether one subunit in a SOX dimer is sufficient for catalysis, we produced heterodimeric SOX variants with abolished sulfite oxidation by replacing the molybdenum-coordinating and essential cysteine in the active site. To further elucidate whether electrons can bifurcate between subunits, we truncated one or both subunits by deleting the heme domain. We generated three SOX heterodimers: i  SOX/Mo with two active molybdenum centers but one deleted heme domain, ii  SOX/Mo_C264S with one unmodified and one inactive subunit, and iii  SOX_C264S/Mo harboring a functional molybdenum center on one subunit and a heme domain on the other subunit. Steady-state kinetics showed 50% SOX activity for the SOX/Mo and SOX/Mo_C264S heterodimers, whereas SOX_C264S/Mo activity was reduced by two orders of magnitude. Rapid reaction kinetics monitoring revealed comparable ET rates in SOX/Mo, SOX/Mo_C264S, and SOX/SOX, whereas in SOX_C264S/Mo, ET was strongly compromised. We also combined a functional SOX Mo domain with an inactive full-length SOX R217W variant and demonstrated interdimer ET that resembled SOX_C264S/Mo activity. Collectively, our results indicate that one functional subunit in SOX is sufficient for catalysis and that electrons derived from either MoIV   or MoV   follow this path.

M. Eh, A. T. Kaczmarek, G. Schwarz, and D. Bender,Molecular mechanism of intramolecular electron transfer in dimeric sulfite oxidase, J Biol Chem, 2022, 298, 101668.

           

Molecular mechanism of intramolecular electron transfer in dimeric sulfite oxidase

Sulfite oxidase (SOX) is a homodimeric molybdo-heme enzyme that oxidizes sulfite to sulfate at the molybdenum center. Following substrate oxidation, molybdenum is reduced and subsequently regenerated by two sequential electron transfers via heme to cytochrome c. SOX harbors both metals in spatially separated domains within each subunit, suggesting that domain movement is necessary to allow intramolecular electron transfer (ET). To address whether one subunit in a SOX dimer is sufficient for catalysis, we produced heterodimeric SOX variants with abolished sulfite oxidation by replacing the molybdenum-coordinating and essential cysteine in the active site. To further elucidate whether electrons can bifurcate between subunits, we truncated one or both subunits by deleting the heme domain. We generated three SOX heterodimers: (i) SOX/Mo with two active molybdenum centers but one deleted heme domain, (ii) SOX/Mo_C264S with one unmodified and one inactive subunit, and (iii) SOX_C264S/Mo harboring a functional molybdenum center on one subunit and a heme domain on the other subunit. Steady-state kinetics showed 50% SOX activity for the SOX/Mo and SOX/Mo_C264S heterodimers, while SOX_C264S/Mo activity was reduced by two orders of magnitude. Rapid reaction kinetics monitoring revealed comparable ET rates in SOX/Mo, SOX/Mo_C264S and SOX/SOX, whereas in SOX_C264S/Mo ET was strongly compromised. We also combined a functional SOX Mo domain with an inactive and dimeric full-length SOX R217W variant, and demonstrated inter-dimer ET that resembled SOX_C264S/Mo activity. Collectively, our results indicate that one functional subunit in SOX is sufficient for catalysis and that electrons derived from either Mo(IV) or Mo(V) follow this path.

M. Eh, A. Tobias Kaczmarek, G. Schwarz, and D. Bender,Molecular mechanism of intramolecular electron transfer in dimeric sulfite oxidase, J Biol Chem, 2022, 101668.

Dissection and reconstitution provide insights into electron transport in the membrane-bound aldehyde dehydrogenase complex of Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus

Acetic acid bacteria catalyze the two-step oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid using the membrane-bound enzymes pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase and molybdopterin-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH. Although the reducing equivalents from the substrate are transferred to ubiquinone in the membrane, intramolecular electron transport in ALDH is not understood. Here, we purified the AldFGH complex, the membrane-bound ALDH that is physiologically relevant to acetic acid fermentation in Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus strain PAL5. The purified AldFGH complex showed acetaldehyde:ubiquinone (Q(2 oxidoreductase activity. C-type cytochromes of the AldFGH complex (in the AldF subunit were reduced by acetaldehyde. Then, we genetically dissected the AldFGH complex into AldGH and AldF units and reconstituted them. The AldGH subcomplex showed acetaldehyde:ferricyanide oxidoreductase activity, but not Q(2 reductase activity. The ALDH activity of AldGH was not found in membranes but in the soluble fraction of the recombinant strain, suggesting that the AldF subunit is responsible for membrane binding of the AldFGH complex. AldFGH complex reconstituted from the AldGH subcomplex and AldF showed Q(2 reductase activity. Absorption spectra of the purified AldGH subcomplex suggested the presence of an [Fe-S] cluster, which can be reduced by acetaldehyde. We propose a model in which electrons from the substrate are abstracted by a molybdopterin in the AldH subunit and transferred to [Fe-S] cluster(s in the AldG subunit, followed by electron transport to c-type cytochrome centers in the AldF subunit, which is the site of ubiquinone reduction in the membrane. Importance Two membrane-bound enzymes of acetic acid bacteria-pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase and molybdopterin-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH-are responsible for vinegar production. Upon oxidation of acetaldehyde, ALDH reduces ubiquinone in the cytoplasmic membrane. ALDH is an enzyme complex of three subunits. Here, we tried to understand how ALDH works by using a classical biochemical approach and genetic engineering to dissect the enzyme complex into soluble and membrane-bound parts. The soluble part had limited activity in vitro, and did not reduce ubiquinone. However, enzyme complex reconstituted from the soluble and membrane-bound parts showed ubiquinone reduction activity. The proposed working model of ALDH provides a better understanding of how the enzyme works in the vinegar fermentation process.

R. Miah, S. Nina, T. Murate, N. Kataoka, M. Matsutani, Y. Ano, K. Matsushita, and T. Yakushi,Dissection and reconstitution provide insights into electron transport in the membrane-bound aldehyde dehydrogenase complex of Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus, J Bacteriol, 2022, jb0055821.

             

Sodium molybdate does not inhibit sulfate-reducing bacteria but increases shell growth in the Pacific oyster Magallana gigas

Recent work on microbe-host interactions has revealed an important nexus between the environment, microbiome, and host fitness. Marine invertebrates that build carbonate skeletons are of particular interest in this regard because of predicted effects of ocean acidification on calcified organisms, and the potential of microbes to buffer these impacts. Here we investigate the role of sulfate-reducing bacteria, a group well known to affect carbonate chemistry, in Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas shell formation. We reared oyster larvae to 51 days post fertilization and exposed organisms to control and sodium molybdate conditions, the latter of which is thought to inhibit bacterial sulfate reduction. Contrary to expectations, we found that sodium molybdate did not uniformly inhibit sulfate-reducing bacteria in oysters, and oysters exposed to molybdate grew larger shells over the experimental period. Additionally, we show that microbiome composition, host gene expression, and shell size were distinct between treatments earlier in ontogeny, but became more similar by the end of the experiment. Although additional testing is required to fully elucidate the mechanisms, our work provides preliminary evidence that M. gigas is capable of regulating microbiome dysbiosis caused by environmental perturbations, which is reflected in shell development.

R. M. W. Banker, J. Lipovac, J. J. Stachowicz, and D. A. Gold,Sodium molybdate does not inhibit sulfate-reducing bacteria but increases shell growth in the Pacific oyster Magallana gigas, PLoS One, 2022, 17, e0262939.

             

Molecular mechanism of intramolecular electron transfer in dimeric sulfite oxidase

Sulfite oxidase (SOX is a homodimeric molybdo-heme enzyme that oxidizes sulfite to sulfate at the molybdenum center. Following substrate oxidation, molybdenum is reduced and subsequently regenerated by two sequential electron transfers via heme to cytochrome c. SOX harbors both metals in spatially separated domains within each subunit, suggesting that domain movement is necessary to allow intramolecular electron transfer (ET. To address whether one subunit in a SOX dimer is sufficient for catalysis, we produced heterodimeric SOX variants with abolished sulfite oxidation by replacing the molybdenum-coordinating and essential cysteine in the active site. To further elucidate whether electrons can bifurcate between subunits, we truncated one or both subunits by deleting the heme domain. We generated three SOX heterodimers: (i SOX/Mo with two active molybdenum centers but one deleted heme domain, (ii SOX/Mo_C264S with one unmodified and one inactive subunit, and (iii SOX_C264S/Mo harboring a functional molybdenum center on one subunit and a heme domain on the other subunit. Steady-state kinetics showed 50% SOX activity for the SOX/Mo and SOX/Mo_C264S heterodimers, while SOX_C264S/Mo activity was reduced by two orders of magnitude. Rapid reaction kinetics monitoring revealed comparable ET rates in SOX/Mo, SOX/Mo_C264S and SOX/SOX, whereas in SOX_C264S/Mo ET was strongly compromised. We also combined a functional SOX Mo domain with an inactive and dimeric full-length SOX R217W variant, and demonstrated inter-dimer ET that resembled SOX_C264S/Mo activity. Collectively, our results indicate that one functional subunit in SOX is sufficient for catalysis and that electrons derived from either Mo(IV or Mo(V follow this path.

M. Eh, A. Tobias Kaczmarek, G. Schwarz, and D. Bender,Molecular mechanism of intramolecular electron transfer in dimeric sulfite oxidase, J Biol Chem, 2022, 101668.

THIOSULFATE REDUCTASE

Characterizati thiosulfate reductase on of thiosulfate reductase from pyrobaculum aerophilum heterologously produced in pyrococcus furiosus

 

The genome of the archaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum (T-opt ~ 100 degrees C) contains an operon (PAE2859-2861) encoding a putative pyranopterin-containing oxidoreductase of unknown function and metal content. These genes (with one gene modified to encode a His-affinity tag) were inserted into the fermentative anaerobic archaeon, Pyrococcus furiosus (T-opt ~ 100 degrees C). Dye-linked assays of cytoplasmic extracts from recombinant P. furiosus show that the P. aerophilum enzyme is a thiosulfate reductase (Tsr) and reduces thiosulfate but not polysulfide. The enzyme (Tsr-Mo) from molybdenum-grown cells contains Mo (Mo:W = 9:1) while the enzyme (Tsr-W) from tungsten-grown cells contains mainly W (Mo:W = 1:6). Purified Tsr-Mo has over ten times the activity (V-max = 1580 vs. 141 mu mol min(-1) mg(-1)) and twice the affinity for thiosulfate (K-m = ~ 100 vs. ~ 200 mu M) than Tsr-W and is reduced at a lower potential (E-peak = - 255 vs - 402 mV). Tsr-Mo and Tsr-W proteins are heterodimers lacking the membrane anchor subunit (PAE2861). Recombinant P. furiosus expressing P. aerophilum Tsr could not use thiosulfate as a terminal electron acceptor. P. furiosus contains five pyranopterin-containing enzymes, all of which utilize W. P. aerophilum Tsr-Mo is the first example of an active Mo-containing enzyme produced in P. furiosus.

D. K. Haja, C. H. Wu, F. L. Poole, J. Sugar, S. G. Williams, A. K. Jones, and M. W. W. Adams, Characterization of thiosulfate reductase from pyrobaculum aerophilum heterologously produced in pyrococcus furiosus, Extremophiles, 2020, 24, 53-62.

Sulfite oxidase

Sulfite oxidation by the quinone-reducing molybdenum sulfite dehydrogenase SoeABC from the bacterium Aquifex aeolicus

The microaerophilic bacterium Aquifex aeolicus is a chemolitoautotroph that uses sulfur compounds as electron sources. The model of oxidation of the energetic sulfur compounds in this bacterium predicts that sulfite would probably be a metabolic intermediate released in the cytoplasm. In this work, we purified and characterized a membrane-bound sulfite dehydrogenase, identified as an SoeABC enzyme, that was previously described as a sulfur reductase. It is a member of the DMSO-reductase family of molybdenum enzymes. This type of enzyme was identified a few years ago but never purified, and biochemical data and kinetic properties were completely lacking. An enzyme catalyzing sulfite oxidation using Nitro-blue tetrazolium as artificial electron acceptor was extracted from the membrane fraction of Aquifex aeolicus. The purified enzyme is a dimer of trimer (alpha beta gamma)(2) of about 390 kDa. The K-M for sulfite and k(cat) values were 34 mu M and 567 s(-1) respectively, at pH 8.3 and 55 degrees C. We furthermore showed that SoeABC reduces a UQ(10), analogue, the decyl-ubiquinone, as well, with a K-M of 2.6 mu M and a k(cat) of 52.9 s(-1). It seems to specifically oxidize sulfite but can work in the reverse direction, reduction of sulfur or tetrathionate, using reduced methyl viologen as electron donor. The close phylogenetic relationship of Soe with sulfur and tetrathionate reductases that we established, perfectly explains this enzymatic ability, although its bidirectionality in vivo still needs to be clarified. Oxygen-consumption measurements confirmed that electrons generated by sulfite oxidation in the cytoplasm enter the respiratory chain at the level of quinones.

S. Boughanemi, P. Infossi, M. T. Giudici-Orticoni, B. Schoepp-Cothenet, and M. Guiral,Sulfite oxidation by the quinone-reducing molybdenum sulfite dehydrogenase SoeABC from the bacterium Aquifex aeolicus, Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta-Bioenergetics, 2020, 1861.

             

Structural evidence for a reaction intermediate mimic in the active site of a sulfite dehydrogenase

By combining X-ray crystallography, electron paramagnetic resonance techniques and density functional theory-based modelling, we provide evidence for a direct coordination of the product analogue, phosphate, to the molybdenum active site of a sulfite dehydrogenase. This interaction is mimicking the still experimentally uncharacterized reaction intermediate proposed to arise during the catalytic cycle of this class of enzymes. This work opens new perspectives for further deciphering the reaction mechanism of this nearly ubiquitous class of oxidoreductases.

A. Djeghader, M. Rossotti, S. Abdulkarim, F. Biaso, G. Gerbaud, W. Nitschke, B. Schoepp-Cothenet, T. Soulimane, and S. Grimaldi,Structural evidence for a reaction intermediate mimic in the active site of a sulfite dehydrogenase, Chemical Communications, 2020, 56, 9850-9853.

Oxygen and nitrite reduction by heme-deficient sulphite oxidase in a patient with mild sulphite oxidase deficiency

Isolated sulphite oxidase deficiency (iSOD) is an autosomal recessive inborn error in metabolism characterised by accumulation of sulphite, which leads to death in early infancy. Sulphite oxidase (SO) is encoded by the SUOX gene and forms a heme- and molybdenum-cofactor-dependent enzyme localised in the intermembrane space of mitochondria. Within SO, both cofactors are embedded in two separated domains, which are linked via a flexible 11 residue tether. The two-electron oxidation of sulphite to sulphate occurs at the molybdenum active site. From there, electrons are transferred via two intramolecular electron transfer steps (IETs) via the heme cofactor and to the physiologic electron acceptor cytochrome c. Previously, we reported nitrite and oxygen to serve as alternative electron acceptors at the Moco active site, thereby overcoming IET within SO. Here, we present evidence for these reactions to occur in an iSOD patient with an unusual mild disease representation. In the patient, a homozygous c.427C>A mutation within the SUOX gene leads to replacement of the highly conserved His143 to Asn. The affected His143 is one of two heme-iron-coordinating residues within SO. We demonstrate, that the H143N SO variant fails to bind heme in vivo leading to the elimination of SO-dependent cytochrome c reduction in mitochondria. We show, that sulphite oxidation at the Moco domain is unaffected in His143Asn SO variant and demonstrate that nitrite and oxygen are able to serve as electron acceptors for sulphite-derived electrons in cellulo. As result, the patient H143N SO variant retains residual sulphite oxidising activity thus ameliorating iSOD progression.

D. Bender, A. T. Kaczmarek, S. Kuester, A. B. Burlina, and G. Schwarz,Oxygen and nitrite reduction by heme-deficient sulphite oxidase in a patient with mild sulphite oxidase deficiency, Journal of inherited metabolic disease, 2020, 43, 748-757.

Impaired mitochondrial maturation of sulfite oxidase in a patient with severe sulfite oxidase deficiency

Sulfite oxidase (SO) is encoded by the nuclear SUOX gene and catalyzes the final step in cysteine catabolism thereby oxidizing sulfite to sulfate. Oxidation of sulfite is dependent on two cofactors within SO, a heme and the molybdenum cofactor (Moco), the latter forming the catalytic site of sulfite oxidation. SO localizes to the intermembrane space of mitochondria where both-pre-SO processing and cofactor insertion-are essential steps during SO maturation. Isolated SO deficiency (iSOD) is a rare inborn error of metabolism caused by mutations in the SUOX gene that lead to non-functional SO. ISOD is characterized by rapidly progressive neurodegeneration and death in early infancy. We diagnosed an iSOD patient with homozygous mutation of SUOX at c.1084G>A replacing Gly362 to serine. To understand the mechanism of disease, we expressed patient-derived G362S SO in Escherichia coli and surprisingly found full catalytic activity, while in patient fibroblasts no SO activity was detected, suggesting differences between bacterial and human expression. Moco reconstitution of apo-G362S SO was found to be approximately 90-fold reduced in comparison to apo-WT SO in vitro. In line, levels of SO-bound Moco in cells overexpressing G362S SO were significantly reduced compared to cells expressing WT SO providing evidence for compromised maturation of G362S SO in cellulo. Addition of molybdate to culture medium partially rescued impaired Moco binding of G362S SO and restored SO activity in patient fibroblasts. Thus, this study demonstrates the importance of the orchestrated maturation of SO and provides a first case of Moco-responsive iSOD.

D. Bender, A. T. Kaczmarek, J. A. Santamaria-Araujo, B. Stueve, S. Waltz, D. Bartsch, L. Kurian, S. Cirak, and G. Schwarz,Impaired mitochondrial maturation of sulfite oxidase in a patient with severe sulfite oxidase deficiency, Human molecular genetics, 2019, 28, 2885-2899.

               

Oxygen Vacancy-Engineered PEGylated MoO3 -x Nanoparticles with Superior Sulfite Oxidase Mimetic Activity for Vitamin B1 Detection

Sulfite oxidase (SuOx ) is a moybdenum-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of sulfite to sulfate to maintain the intracellular levels of sulfite at an appropriate low level. The deficiency of SuOx would cause severe neurological damage and infant diseases, which makes SuOx of tremendous biomedical importance. Herein, a SuOx mimic nanozyme of PEGylated (polyethylene glycol)-MoO3 -x nanoparticles (P-MoO3 -x NPs) with abundant oxygen vacancies created by vacancy-engineering is reported. Their level of SuOx -like activity is 12 times higher than that of bulk-MoO3 . It is also established that the superior increased enzyme mimetic activity is due to the introduction of the oxygen vacancies acting as catalytic hotspots, which allows better sulfite capture ability. It is found that vitamin B1 (VB1) inhibits the SuOx mimic activity of P-MoO3 -x NPs through the irreversible cleavage by sulfite and the electrostatic interaction with P-MoO3 -x NPs. A colorimetric platform is developed for the detection of VB1 with high sensitivity (the low detection limit is 0.46 microg mL(-1) ) and good selectivity. These findings pave the way for further investigating the nanozyme which possess intrinsic SuOx mimicing activity and is thus a promising candidate for biomedical detection.

Y. Chen, T. Chen, X. Wu, and G. Yang,Oxygen Vacancy-Engineered PEGylated MoO3 -x Nanoparticles with Superior Sulfite Oxidase Mimetic Activity for Vitamin B1 Detection, Small, 2019, e1903153.

Sulfite oxidase      

Growth inhibition of sulfate-reducing bacteria for trichloroethylene dechlorination enhancement

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a frequently found organic contaminant in polluted-groundwater. In this microcosm study, effects of hydrogen-producing bacteria [Clostridium butyricum (Clostridium sp.)] and inhibitor of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) addition on the enhancement of TCE dechlorination were evaluated. Results indicate that Clostridium sp. supplement could effectively enhance TCE reductive dechlorination (97.4% of TCE removal) due to increased hydrogen concentration and Dehalococcoides (DHC) populations (increased to 1 x 10(4) gene copies/L). However, addition of Clostridium sp. also caused the increase in dsrA (dissimilatory sulfide reductase subunit A) (increased to 2 x 10(8) gene copies/L), and thus, part of the hydrogen was consumed by SRB, which would limit the effective application of hydrogen by DHC. Control of Clostridium sp. addition is a necessity to minimize the adverse impact of Clostridium sp. on DHC growth. Ferric citrate caused the slight raise of the oxidation-reduction state, which resulted in growth inhibition of SRB. Molybdate addition inhibited the growth of SRB, and thus, the dsrA concentrations (dropped from 4 x 10(7) to 9 x 10(5) gene copies/L) and sulfate reduction efficiency were decreased. Increased DHC populations (increased from 8 x 10(3) to 1 x 10(5) gene copies/L) were due to increased available hydrogen (increased from 0 to 2 mg/L), which enhanced TCE dechlorination (99.3% TCE removal). Metagenomic analyses show that a significant microbial diversity was detected in microcosms with different treatments. Clostridium sp., ferric citrate, and molybdate addition caused a decreased SRB communities and increased fatty acid production microbial communities (increased from 4.9% to 20.2%), which would be beneficial to the hydrogen production and TCE dechlorination processes.

W. H. Lin, C. C. Chen, Y. T. Sheu, D. C. W. Tsang, K. H. Lo, and C. M. Kao,Growth inhibition of sulfate-reducing bacteria for trichloroethylene dechlorination enhancement, Environmental Research, 2020, 187 109629.

             

Reciprocal regulation of sulfite oxidation and nitrite reduction by mitochondrial sulfite oxidase

The oxygen-independent nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide (NO) pathway is considered as a substantial source of NO in mammals. Dietary nitrate/nitrite are distributed throughout the body and reduced to NO by the action of various enzymes. The intermembrane spaced (IMS), molybdenum   cofactor-dependent sulfite oxidase (SO) was shown to catalyze such a nitrite reduction. In this study we asked whether the primary function of SO - sulfite oxidation and its novel function - nitrite reduction - impact each other. First, we utilized benzyl viologen as artificial electron donor to investigate steady state NO synthesis by SO and found fast (k(cat) = 14 s(-1)) nitrite reduction of SO full-length and its isolated molybdenum   domain at pH 6.5. Next, we determined the impact of nitrite on pre-steady state kinetics in SO catalysis and identified nitrite as a pH-dependent inhibitor of SO reductive and oxidative half reaction. Finally, we report on the time-dependent formation of the paramagnetic Mo(V) species following nitrite reduction and demonstrate that sulfite inhibits nitrite reduction. In conclusion, we propose a pH-dependent reciprocal regulation of sulfite oxidation and nitrite reduction by each substrate, thus facilitating quick responses to hypoxia induced changes in the IMS, which may function in protecting the cell from reactive oxygen species production.

A. T. Kaczmarek, M. J. F. Strampraad, P. L. Hagedoorn, and G. Schwarz,Reciprocal regulation of sulfite oxidation and nitrite reduction by mitochondrial sulfite oxidase, Nitric Oxide-Biology and Chemistry, 2019, 89, 22-31.

Sulfite oxidase

Active sulfite oxidase domain of Salmonella enterica pathogenic protein small intestine invasive factor E (SiiE): a potential diagnostic target

Serovars of Salmonella enterica are common food-borne bacterial pathogens. Salmonella typhi, which causes typhoid, is the most dangerous of them. Though detailed molecular pathogenesis studies reveal many virulence factors, inability to identify their biochemical functions hampers the development of diagnostic methods and therapeutic leads. Lack of quicker diagnosis is an impediment in starting early antibiotic treatment to reduce the severe morbidity and mortality in typhoid. In this study, employing bioinformatic prediction, biochemical analysis, and recombinantly cloning the active region, we show that extracellularly secreted virulence-associated protein, small intestinal invasion factor E (SiiE), possesses a sulfite oxidase (SO) domain that catalyzes the conversion of sodium sulfite to sodium sulfate using tungsten as the cofactor. This activity common to Salmonella enterica serovars seems to be specific to them from bioinformatic analysis of available bacterial genomes. Along with the ability of this large non-fimbrial adhesin of 600kDa binding to sialic acid on the host cells, this activity could aid in subverting the host defense mechanism by destroying sulfites released by the immune cells and colonize the host gastrointestinal epithelium. Being an extracellular enzyme, it could be an ideal candidate for developing diagnostics of S. enterica, particularly S. typhi.

O. R. Paramasivam, S. Trivedi, N. Sangith, and K. Sankaran,Active sulfite oxidase domain of Salmonella enterica pathogenic protein small intestine invasive factor E (SiiE): a potential diagnostic target, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2019, 103, 5679-5688.

 

Sulfite oxidase

Mechanism of nitrite-dependent NO synthesis by human sulfite oxidase

In addition to nitric oxide (NO) synthases, molybdenum  -dependent enzymes have been reported to reduce nitrite to produce NO. Here, we report the stoichiometric reduction in nitrite to NO by human sulfite oxidase (SO), a mitochondrial intermembrane space enzyme primarily involved in cysteine catabolism. Kinetic and spectroscopic studies provide evidence for direct nitrite coordination at the molybdenum   center followed by an inner shell electron transfer mechanism. In the presence of the physiological electron acceptor cytochrome c, we were able to close the catalytic cycle of sulfite-dependent nitrite reduction thus leading to steady-state NO synthesis, a finding that strongly supports a physiological relevance of SO-dependent NO formation. By engineering SO variants with reduced intramolecular electron transfer rate, we were able to increase NO generation efficacy by one order of magnitude, providing a mechanistic tool to tune NO synthesis by SO.

D. Bender, A. T. Kaczmarek, D. Niks, R. Hille, and G. Schwarz,Mechanism of nitrite-dependent NO synthesis by human sulfite oxidase, Biochemical Journal, 2019, 476, 1805-1815.

 

SULFITE OXIDASE

Sulfite oxidase deficiency

S-Sulfocysteine Induces Seizure-Like Behaviors in Zebrafish

Sulfite is a neurotoxin, which is detoxified by the molybdenum cofactor (Moco)-dependent enzyme sulfite oxidase (SOX). In humans, SOX deficiency causes the formation of the glutamate analog S-Sulfocysteine (SSC) resulting in a constant overstimulation of ionotropic glutamatergic receptors. Overstimulation leads to seizures, severe brain damage, and early childhood death. SOX deficiency may be caused either by a mutated sox gene or by mutations in one of the genes of the multi-step Moco biosynthesis pathway. While patients affected in the first step of Moco biosynthesis can be treated by a substitution therapy, no therapy is available for patients affected either in the second or third step of Moco biosynthesis or with isolated SOX deficiency. In the present study, we used a combination of behavior analysis and vital dye staining to show that SSC induces increased swimming, seizure-like movements, and increased cell death in the central nervous system of zebrafish larvae. Seizure-like movements were fully revertible upon removal of SSC or could be alleviated by a glutamatergic receptor antagonist. We conclude that in zebrafish SSC can chemically induce phenotypic characteristics comparable to the disease condition of human patients lacking SOX activity.

J. Plate, W. A. Sassen, A. H. Hassan, F. Lehne, R. W. Koster, and T. Kruse,S-Sulfocysteine Induces Seizure-Like Behaviors in Zebrafish, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2019, 10.

 

Sulfite oxidase

Mechanism of nitrite-dependent NO synthesis by human sulfite oxidase

In addition to nitric oxide (NO) synthases, molybdenum-dependent enzymes have been reported to reduce nitrite to produce NO. Here, we report the stoichiometric reduction in nitrite to NO by human sulfite oxidase (SO), a mitochondrial intermembrane space enzyme primarily involved in cysteine catabolism. Kinetic and spectroscopic studies provide evidence for direct nitrite coordination at the molybdenum center followed by an inner shell electron transfer mechanism. In the presence of the physiological electron acceptor cytochrome c, we were able to close the catalytic cycle of sulfite-dependent nitrite reduction thus leading to steady-state NO synthesis, a finding that strongly supports a physiological relevance of SO-dependent NO formation. By engineering SO variants with reduced intramolecular electron transfer rate, we were able to increase NO generation efficacy by one order of magnitude, providing a mechanistic tool to tune NO synthesis by SO.

D. Bender, A. Tobias Kaczmarek, D. Niks, R. Hille, and G. Schwarz,Mechanism of nitrite-dependent NO synthesis by human sulfite oxidase, The Biochemical journal, 2019, 476, 1805-1815.

 

Sulfite oxidase

Reciprocal regulation of sulfite oxidation and nitrite reduction by mitochondrial sulfite oxidase

The oxygen-independent nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide (NO) pathway is considered as a substantial source of NO in mammals. Dietary nitrate/nitrite are distributed throughout the body and reduced to NO by the action of various enzymes. The intermembrane spaced (IMS), molybdenum cofactor-dependent sulfite oxidase (SO) was shown to catalyze such a nitrite reduction. In this study we asked whether the primary function of SO - sulfite oxidation - and its novel function - nitrite reduction - impact each other. First, we utilized benzyl viologen as artificial electron donor to investigate steady state NO synthesis by SO and found fast (kcat=14 s(-1)) nitrite reduction of SO full-length and its isolated molybdenum domain at pH 6.5. Next, we determined the impact of nitrite on pre-steady state kinetics in SO catalysis and identified nitrite as a pH-dependent inhibitor of SO reductive and oxidative half reaction. Finally, we report on the time-dependent formation of the paramagnetic Mo(V) species following nitrite reduction and demonstrate that sulfite inhibits nitrite reduction. In conclusion, we propose a pH-dependent reciprocal regulation of sulfite oxidation and nitrite reduction by each substrate, thus facilitating quick responses to hypoxia induced changes in the IMS, which may function in protecting the cell from reactive oxygen species production.

A. T. Kaczmarek, M. J. F. Strampraad, P. L. Hagedoorn, and G. Schwarz,Reciprocal regulation of sulfite oxidation and nitrite reduction by mitochondrial sulfite oxidase, Nitric oxide : biology and chemistry, 2019, 89, 22-31.

 

SULFITE OXIDASE DEFICIENCY

Evidence that Thiosulfate Inhibits Creatine Kinase Activity in Rat Striatum via Thiol Group Oxidation

Sulfite oxidase, molybdenum cofactor, and ETHE1 deficiencies are autosomal recessive disorders that affect the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids. Patients with these disorders present severe neurological dysfunction and basal ganglia abnormalities, accompanied by high levels of thiosulfate in biological fluids and tissues. Aiming to better elucidate the pathophysiology of basal ganglia damage in these disorders, we evaluated the in vivo effects of thiosulfate administration on bioenergetics, oxidative stress, and neural damage in rat striatum. The in vitro effect of thiosulfate on creatine kinase (CK) activity was also studied. In vivo findings showed that thiosulfate administration decreased the activities of CK and citrate synthase, and increased the activity of catalase 30 min after administration. Activities of other antioxidant enzymes, citric acid cycle, and respiratory chain complex enzymes, as well as glutathione concentrations and markers of neural damage, were not altered by thiosulfate 30 min or 7 days after its administration. Thiosulfate also decreased the activity of CK in vitro in striatum of rats, which was prevented by the thiol reducing agents dithiothreitol (DTT), the antioxidants glutathione (GSH), melatonin, trolox (hydrosoluble analogue of vitamin E), and lipoic acid. DTT and GSH further prevented thiosulfate-induced decrease of the activity of a purified CK in a medium devoid of biological samples. These data suggest that thiosulfate inhibits CK activity by altering critical sulfhydryl groups of this enzyme. It may be also presumed that bioenergetics impairment and ROS generation induced by thiosulfate are mechanisms underlying the neuropathophysiology of disorders in which this metabolite accumulates.

M. Grings, B. Parmeggiani, A. P. Moura, L. de Moura Alvorcem, A. T. S. Wyse, M. Wajner, and G. Leipnitz,Evidence that Thiosulfate Inhibits Creatine Kinase Activity in Rat Striatum via Thiol Group Oxidation, Neurotoxicity research, 2018.

ON LINE. Neurotoxicity Research October 2018, Volume 34, Issue 3, pp 693–705

Chitosan-Promoted Direct Electrochemistry of Human Sulfite Oxidase

Direct electrochemistry of human sulfite oxidase (HSO) has been achieved on carboxylate-terminated self-assembled monolayers cast on a Au working electrode in the presence of the promoter chitosan. The modified electrode facilitates a well-defined nonturnover redox response from the heme cofactor (Fe-III/II) in 750 mM Tris, MOPS, and bicine buffer solutions. The formal redox potential of the nonturnover response varies slightly depending on the nature of the thiol monolayer on the Au electrode. Upon addition of sulfite to the cell a pronounced catalytic current from HSO-facilitated sulfite oxidation is observed. The measured catalytic rate constant (k(cat)) is around 0.2 s(-1) (compared with 26 s(-1) obtained from solution assays), which indicates that interaction of the enzyme with the electrode lowers overall catalysis although native behavior is retained in terms of substrate concentration dependence, pH dependence, and inhibition effects. In contrast, no catalytic activity is observed when HSO is confined to amine-terminated thiol monolayers although well-defined noncatalytic responses from the heme cofactor are still observed. These differences are linked to flexibility of HSO, which can switch between active and inactive conformations, and also competitive ion exchange processes at the electrode surface involving the enzyme and substrate.

Kalimuthu, P., Belaidi, A. A., Schwarz, G., and Bernhardt, P. V.,Chitosan-Promoted Direct Electrochemistry of Human Sulfite Oxidase, Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2017, 121, 9149-9159.

Sulfite oxidase

Transient catalytic voltammetry of sulfite oxidase reveals rate limiting conformational changes

Sulfite oxidases are metalloenzymes that' oxidize sulfite to sulfate at a Molybdenum active site. In vertebrate sulfite oxidases, the,electrons generated at the Mo center are transferred to an external,electron acceptor via-a heme domain, which can adopt two conformations: 2-closed conforniation, suitable for internal electron transfer, and an "open" conformation suitable-for intermolecular electron transfer. This conformational change is an integral part of-the catalytic cycle. Sulfite oxidases have been wired to. electrode snrfaces, but their immobilization leads to a significant decrease in their catalytic activity, raising the question of the occurrence of the conformational change when the enzyine is on an electrode. We recorded and quantitatively modeled for the first time the transient response of the catalytic cycle of human sulfite oxidase immobilized on an electrode. We show that conformational changes still occur on the electrode, but at a' ower rate thandn solution, which iS the reason for the decrease in activity of sulfite oiddases upon immobilization.

Zeng, T., Leimkuhler, S., Wollenberger, U., and Fourmond, V.,Transient Catalytic Voltammetry of Sulfite Oxidase Reveals Rate Limiting Conformational Changes, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2017, 139, 11559-11567.

Cysteine catabolism

Homeostatic impact of sulfite and hydrogen sulfide on cysteine catabolism

Cysteine is one of the two key sulfur-containing amino acids with important functions in, redox homeostasis, protein functionality and metabolism. Cysteine is taken up by mammals via the diet, and can also be derived from methionine via the transsulfuration pathway. The cellular concentration of cysteine is kept within a narrow range by controlling its synthesis and degradation. There are two pathways for the catabolism of cysteine leading to sulfate, taurine and thiosulfate as terminal products. The oxidative pathway produces taurine and sulfate, while the H2 S pathway involves different enzymatic reactions leading to the formation and clearance of H2 S, an important signalling molecule in mammals, resulting in thiosulfate and sulfate. Sulfite is a common intermediate in both catabolic pathways. Sulfite is considered as cytotoxic and produces neurotoxic S-sulfonates. As a result, a deficiency in in the terminal steps of cysteine or H2 S catabolism leads to severe forms of encephalopathy with accumulation of sulfite and H2 S in the body. This review links the homeostatic regulation of both cysteine catabolic pathways to sulfite and H2 S.

J. B. Kohl, A. T. Mellis, and G. Schwarz, Homeostatic impact of sulfite and hydrogen sulfide on cysteine catabolism, Br J Pharmacol, 2018.

Sulfite oxidase activity of cytochrome c: role of hydrogen peroxide

In humans, sulfite is generated endogenously by the metabolism of sulfur containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine.

Sulfite is also formed from exposure to sulfur dioxide, one of the major environmental pollutants.

Sulfite is used as an antioxidant and preservative in dried fruits, vegetables, and beverages such as wine.

Sulfite is also used as a stabilizer in many drugs.

Sulfite toxicity has been associated with allergic reactions characterized by sulfite sensitivity, asthma, and anaphylactic shock. Sulfite is also toxic to neurons and cardiovascular cells. Recent studies suggest that the cytotoxicity of sulfite is mediated by free radicals; however, molecular mechanisms involved in sulfite toxicity are not fully understood. Cytochrome c (cyt c) is known to participate in mitochondrial respiration and has antioxidant and peroxidase activities.

Studies were performed to understand the related mechanism of oxidation of sulfite and radical generation by ferric cytochrome c (Fe3+ cyt c) in the absence and presence of H2O2. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spin trapping studies using 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) were performed with sulfite, Fe3+ cyt c, and H2O2. An EPR spectrum corresponding to the sulfite radical adducts of DMPO (DMPO-SO3 -) was obtained. The amount of DMPO-SO3 - formed from the oxidation of sulfite by the Fe3+ cyt c increased with sulfite concentration. In addition, the amount of DMPO-SO3 - formed by the peroxidase activity of Fe3+ cyt c also increased with sulfite and H2O2 concentration.

From these results, we propose a mechanism in which the Fe3+ cyt c and its peroxidase activity oxidizes sulfite to sulfite radical.

Our results suggest that Fe3+ cyt c could have a novel role in the deleterious effects of sulfite in biological systems due to increased production of sulfite radical.

It also shows that the increased production of sulfite radical may be responsible for neurotoxicity and some of the injuries which occur to humans born with molybdenum cofactor and sulfite oxidase deficiencies.

Velayutham, M., Hemann, C. F., Cardounel, A. J., and Zweier, J. L.,Sulfite Oxidase Activity of Cytochrome c: Role of Hydrogen Peroxide, Biochemistry and biophysics reports, 2016, 5, 96-104.

Enzyme xanthine oxidoreductase

Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR), which is widely distributed from humans to bacteria, has a key role in purine catabolism, catalyzing two steps of sequential hydroxylation from hypoxanthine to xanthine and from xanthine to urate at its molybdenum cofactor (Moco). Human XOR is considered to be a target of drugs not only for therapy of hyperuricemia and gout, but also potentially for a wide variety of other diseases. In this review, we focus on studies of XOR inhibitors  and their implications for understanding the chemical nature and reaction mechanism of the Moco active site of XOR. We also discuss further experimental or clinical studies that would be helpful to clarify remaining issues.

Nishino T, Okamoto K. Mechanistic insights into xanthine oxidoreductase from development studies of candidate drugs to treat hyperuricemia and gout. J Biol Inorg Chem. 2015 Mar; 20(2):195-207. doi: 10.1007/s00775-014-1210-x. Epub 2014 Dec 12.

Enzyme sulfite oxidase

Sulfite-oxidizing enzymes (SOEs) are molybdenum enzymes that exist in almost all  forms of life where they carry out important functions in protecting cells and organisms against sulfite-induced damage. Due to their nearly ubiquitous presence in living cells, these enzymes can be assumed to be evolutionarily ancient, and this is reflected in the fact that the basic domain architecture and fold structure of all sulfite-oxidizing enzymes studied so far are similar. The Mo centers of all SOEs have five-coordinate square pyramidal coordination geometry,  which incorporates a pyranopterin dithiolene cofactor. However, significant differences exist in the quaternary structure of the enzymes, as well as in the kinetic properties and the nature of the electron acceptors used. In addition, some SOEs also contain an integral heme group that participates in the overall catalytic cycle. Catalytic turnover involves the paramagnetic Mo(V) oxidation state, and EPR spectroscopy, especially high-resolution pulsed EPR spectroscopy,  provides detailed information about the molecular and electronic structure of the Mo center and the Mo-based sulfite oxidation reaction.

Kappler U, Enemark JH. Sulfite-oxidizing enzymes J Biol Inorg Chem. 2015 Mar; 20(2):253-64. doi: 10.1007/s00775-014-1197-3. Epub 2014 Sep 27

See also below: Molybdenum cofactor deficiency in humans: neurological consequences of sulfite oxidase deficiency.

Intramolecular electron transfer in sulfite-oxidizing enzymes: probing the role of aromatic amino acids

Sulfite oxidase (SO) is a molybdoheme enzyme that is important in sulfur catabolism, and mutations in the active site region are known to cause SO deficiency disorder in humans.

This investigation probes the effects that mutating aromatic residues (Y273, W338, and H337) in the molybdenum-containing domain of human SO have on both the intramolecular electron transfer (IET) rate between the molybdenum and iron centers using laser flash photolysis and on catalytic turnover via steady-state kinetic analysis.

The W338 and H337 mutants show large decreases in their IET rate constants (k (ET)) relative to the wild-type values, suggesting the importance of these residues for rapid IET. In contrast, these mutants are catalytically competent and exhibit higher k (cat) values than their corresponding k (ET), implying that these two processes involve different conformational states of the protein.

Redox potential investigations using spectroelectrochemistry revealed that these aromatic residues close to the molybdenum center affect the potential of the presumably distant heme center in the resting state (as shown by the crystal structure of chicken SO), suggesting that the heme may be interacting with these residues during IET and/or catalytic turnover.

These combined results suggest that in solution human SO may adopt different conformations for IET and for catalysis in the presence of the substrate. For IET the H337/W338 surface residues may serve as an alternative-docking site for the heme domain.

The similarities between the mutant and wild-type EPR spectra indicate that the active site geometry around the Mo(V) center is not changed by the mutations studied here.

Rajapakshe, A., Meyers, K. T., Berry, R. E., Tollin, G., and Enemark, J. H., Intramolecular electron transfer in sulfite-oxidizing enzymes: probing the role of aromatic amino acids, Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry, 2012, 17, 345-352.

Identity of the exchangeable sulfur-containing ligand at the Mo(V) center of R160Q human sulfite oxidase

In our previous study of the fatal R160Q mutant of human sulfite oxidase (hSO) at low pH (Astashkin et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 8471-8480), a new Mo(V) species, denoted "species 1", was observed at low pH values. Species 1 was ascribed to a six-coordinate Mo(V) center with an exchangeable terminal oxo ligand and an equatorial sulfate group on the basis of pulsed EPR spectroscopy and S-33 and O-17 labeling. Here we report new results for species 1 of R160Q based on substitution of the sulfur-containing ligand by a phosphate group, pulsed EPR spectroscopy in K-a- and W-bands, and extensive density functional theory (DFT) calculations applied to large, more realistic molecular models of the enzyme active site.

The combined results unambiguously show that species 1 has an equatorial sulfite as the only exchangeable ligand. The two types of O-17 signals that are observed arise from the coordinated and remote oxygen atoms of the sulfite ligand. A typical five-coordinate Mo(V) site is compatible with the observed and calculated EPR parameters.

Klein, E. L., Raitsimring, A. M., Astashkin, A. V., Rajapakshe, A., Johnson-Winters, K., Arnold, A. R., Potapov, A., Goldfarb, D., and Enemark, J. H., Identity of the Exchangeable Sulfur-Containing Ligand at the Mo(V) Center of R160Q Human Sulfite Oxidase, Inorganic Chemistry, 2012, 51, 1408-1418.

Sulfite is the main intermediate in the oxidation of sulfur compounds to sulfate, the major product of most dissimilatory sulfur-oxidizing prokaryotes. Two pathways of sulfite oxidation are known: (1) direct oxidation to sulfate catalyzed by a sulfite: acceptor oxidoreductase, which is thought to be a molybdenum-containing enzyme; (2) indirect oxidation under the involvement of the enzymes adenylylsulfate (APS) reductase and ATP sulfurylase and/or adenylylsulfate phosphate adenylyltransferase with APS as an intermediate. Direct oxidation appears to have a wider distribution. In many pro- and also eukaryotes sulfite is formed as a degradative product from molecules containing sulfur as a heteroatom. In these organisms detoxification of sulfite is generally achieved by direct oxidation to sulfate.

Kappler, U. and Dahl, C., Enzymology and molecular biology of prokaryotic sulfite oxidation, Fems Microbiology Letters, 2001, 203, 1-9.

Sulfite oxidase which was deficient in molybdopterin was reconstituted in vitro with the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) synthesized de novo from precursor and molybdate. In vitro reconstitution of the purified apoprotein was achieved using an incubation mixture containing purified precursor, purified molybdopterin synthase, and sodium molybdate.

Leimkuhler, S. and Rajagopalan, K. V., In vitro incorporation of nascent molybdenum cofactor into human sulfite oxidase, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2001, 276, 1837-1844.

The electronic (charge-transfer) spectrum of the enzyme sulfite oxidase has been probed by temperature-dependent magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) spectroscopy. The enzyme was poised in the catalytically relevant [Mo(V):Fe(II)] state by anaerobic reduction with sulfite in the absence of cytochrome c. A feature at 22 250 cm-1 in the MCD is assigned as the cysteine S(sigma)-->Mo d(xy) charge transfer. The primary role of the co-ordinated cysteine is to decrease the effective nuclear charge on Mo by charge donation to the metal, statically poising the active site at more negative reduction potentials during electron transfer regeneration.

Helton, M.E., Pacheco, A., McMaster, J., Enemark, J. H., and Kirk, M. L., An MCD spectroscopic study of the molybdenum active site in sulfite oxidase: insight into the role of co-ordinated cysteine, Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 2000, 80, 227-233.

Molybdenum is an essential constituent of the enzyme hepatic sulfite oxidase. The reduced enzyme, like xanthine oxidase, gives an electron paramagnetic resonance signal of molybdenum(V).

Sheep and cows, develop adverse reactions to feed containing 2-30 ppm molybdenum; horses and pigs tolerate feed with concentrations > 1000 ppm molybdenum [Smyth, 1956].

Cohen, H. J., Fridovich, I. and Rajagopalan, K. V., J. Biol. Chem., 1971, 246 , 374.
Smyth, H.E., Hygienic standard for daily inhalation. Ind Hyg Q, 1956, 17 ,129-185.

Molybdenum K-edge X-ray absorption studies of the oxidized and reduced active sites of the sulfite dehydrogenase from Starkeya novella showed that the molybdenum atom of the oxidized enzyme is bound by two Mo=O ligands at 1.73 angstrom and three thiolate Mo-S ligands at 2.42 angstrom, whereas the reduced enzyme has one oxo at 1.74 angstrom, one long oxygen at 2.19 angstrom (characteristic of Mo-OH2), and three Mo-S ligands at 2.40 angstrom.

Doonan, C. J., Kappler, U., and George, G. N., Structure of the active site of sulfite dehydrogenase from Starkeya novella, Inorganic Chemistry, 2006, 45, 7488-7492.
Enemark, J. H., Astashkin, A. V., and Raitsimring, A. M., Investigation of the coordination structures of the molybdenum(v) sites of sulfite oxidizing enzymes by pulsed EPR spectroscopy, Dalton Transactions, 2006, 3501-3514.
Hemann, C., Hood, B. L., Fulton, M., Hansch, R., Schwarz, G., Mendel, R. R., Kirk, M. L., and Hille, R., Spectroscopic and kinetic studies of Arabidopsis thaliana sulfite oxidase: Nature of the redox-active orbital and electronic structure contributions to catalysis, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2005, 127, 16567-16577.

The recent developments in our understanding of sulfite oxidizing enzyme mechanisms that are driven by a combination of molecular biology, rapid kinetics, pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and computational techniques are the subject of this review.

Feng, C. J., Tollin, G., and Enernark, J. H., Sulfite oxidizing enzymes, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta-Proteins and Proteomics, 2007, 1774, 527-539.

Cofactor-dependent maturation of mammalian sulfite oxidase links two mitochondrial import pathways

Sulfite oxidase (SO) catalyses the metabolic detoxification of sulfite to sulfate within the intermembrane space of mitochondria. The enzyme follows a complex maturation pathway, including mitochondrial transport and processing, integration of two prosthetic groups, molybdenum cofactor (Moco) and heme, as well as homodimerisation. We have identified the sequential and cofactor-dependent maturation steps of SO. The N-terminal bipartite targeting signal of SO was required but not sufficient for mitochondrial localization. In the absence of Moco, most of the SO, although processed by the inner membrane peptidase of mitochondria, was found in the cytosol. Moco binding was required to induce mitochondrial trapping and retention, thus ensuring unidirectional translocation of SO. In the absence of the N-terminal targeting sequence, SO assembled in the cytosol, suggesting an important function for the leader sequence in preventing premature cofactor binding. In vivo, heme binding and dimerisation did not occur in the absence of Moco and only occurred after Moco integration. In conclusion, the identified molecular hierarchy of SO maturation represents a novel link between the canonical presequence pathway and folding-trap mechanisms of mitochondrial import.

Klein, J. M. and Schwarz, G., Cofactor-dependent maturation of mammalian sulfite oxidase links two mitochondrial import pathways, Journal of Cell Science, 2012, 125, 4876-4885.

Applications of pulsed EPR spectroscopy to structural studies of sulfite oxidizing enzymes

Sulfite oxidizing enzymes (SOEs), including sulfite oxidase (SO) and bacterial sulfite dehydrogenase (SDH), catalyze the oxidation of sulfite (SO32-) to sulfate (SO42-). The active sites of SO and SDH are nearly identical, each having a 5-coordinate, pseudo-square-pyramidal Mo with an axial oxo ligand and three equatorial sulfur donor atoms. One sulfur is from a conserved Cys residue and two are from a pyranopterindithiolene (molybdopterin, MPT) cofactor. The identity of the remaining equatorial ligand, which is solvent-exposed, varies during the catalytic cycle. Numerous in vitro studies, particularly those involving electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy of the Mo(V) states of SOEs, have shown that the identity and orientation of this exchangeable equatorial ligand depends on the buffer pH, the presence and concentration of certain anions in the buffer, as well as specific point mutations in the protein. Until very recently, however, EPR has not been a practical technique for directly probing specific structures in which the solvent-exposed, exchangeable ligand is an O, OH-, H2O, SO32-, or SO42- group, because the primary O and S isotopes (O-16 and S-32) are magnetically silent (I = 0). This review focuses on the recent advances in the use of isotopic labeling, variable-frequency high resolution pulsed EPR spectroscopy, synthetic model compounds, and DFT calculations to elucidate the roles of various anions. point mutations, and steric factors in the formation, stabilization, and transformation of SOE active site structures. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Klein, E. L., Astashkin, A. V., Raitsimring, A. M., and Enemark, J. H., Applications of pulsed EPR spectroscopy to structural studies of sulfite oxidizing enzymes, Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 2013, 257, 110-118.

Chloride and sulfite oxidase

Chloro ligands in model oxomolybdenum(V) chloro complexes in an electron spin echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) spectroscopy study had greater ESEEM amplitude than chloride near the oxomolybdenum active site in the high chloride, low-pH form of sulfite oxidase so ruling out equatorial coordination of chloride in the enzyme.

Astashkin, A. V., Klein, E. L., and Enemark, J. H., Toward modeling the high chloride, low pH form of sulfite oxidase: K-a-band ESEEM of equatorial chloro ligands in oxomolybdenum(V) complexes, Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 2007, 101, 1623-1629.

Sulfite oxidase coordinated sulfate

Astashkin, A. V., Johnson-Winters, K., Klein, E. L., Byrne, R. S., Hille, R., Raitsimring, A. M., and Enemark, J. H., Direct demonstration of the presence of coordinated sulfate in the reaction pathway of Arabidopsis thaliana sulfite oxidase using S-33 Labeling and ESEEM Spectroscopy, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2007, 129, 14800-14810

Sulfite oxidase vasorelaxation

The effect of dietary sulphite supplementation on vascular responsiveness in sulphite oxidase (SO)-deficient rats was studied. Increased production of reactive oxygen species and the resultant increment in L-arginine/nitric oxide consumption may play a role in the reduced endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation in sulphite-treated SO-deficient rats.

Nacitarban, C., Kucukatay, V., Sadan, G., Ozturkl, O. H., and Agao, A., Effects of sulphite supplementation on vascular responsiveness in sulphite oxidase-deficient rats, Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 2008, 35, 268-272.

Mo(V) center of the Y343F mutant of human sulfite oxidase by variable frequency pulsed EPR spectroscopy

Raitsimring, A.M., Astashkin, A. V., Feng, C., Wilson, H. L., Rajagopalan, K. V., and Enemark, J. H., Studies of the Mo(V) center of the Y343F mutant of human sulfite oxidase by variable frequency pulsed EPR spectroscopy, Inorganica Chimica Acta, 2008, 361, 941-946.

Sulfite dehydrogenases (SDHs) catalyze the oxidation and detoxification of sulfite to sulfate, a reaction critical to all forms of life. Sulfite-oxidizing enzymes contain three conserved active site amino acids (Arg-55, His-57, and Tyr-236) that are crucial for catalytic competency. Here we have studied the kinetic and structural effects of two novel and one previously reported substitution (R55M, H57A, Y236F) in these residues on SDH catalysis. Both Arg-55 and His-57 were found to have key roles in substrate binding. An R55M substitution increased K-m(sulfite)(app) by 2-3 orders of magnitude, whereas His-57 was required for maintaining a high substrate affinity at low pH when the imidazole ring is fully protonated. This effect may be mediated by interactions of His-57 with Arg-55 that stabilize the position of the Arg-55 side chain or, alternatively, may reflect changes in the protonation state of sulfite. Unlike what is seen for SDHWT and SDHY236F, the catalytic turnover rates of SDHR55M and SDHH57A are relatively insensitive to pH (similar to 60 and 200 s-1, respectively). On the structural level, striking kinetic effects appeared to correlate with disorder (in SDHH57A and SDHY236F) or absence of Arg-55 (SDHR55M), suggesting that Arg-55 and the hydrogen bonding interactions it engages in are crucial for substrate binding and catalysis. The structure of SDHR55M has sulfate bound at the active site, a fact that coincides with a significant increase in the inhibitory effect of sulfate in SDHR55M. Thus, Arg-55 also appears to be involved in enabling discrimination between the substrate and product in SDH.

Bailey, S., Rapson, T., Johnson-Winters, K., Astashkin, A. V., Enemark, J. H., and Kappler, U., Molecular Basis for Enzymatic Sulfite Oxidation HOW THREE CONSERVED ACTIVE SITE RESIDUES SHAPE ENZYME ACTIVITY, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2009, 284, 2053-2063.

Sulfite oxidase in plants

The occurrence of sulfite oxidase in plants has been established by identification of a cDNA from Arabidopsis thaliana encoding a functional sulfite oxidase. The aim was to identify herbaceous and woody plants (Azardirachta indica L., Cassia fistula L., Saraca indica L., Spinacea oleracea L., and S Syzyzium cumini L.) with sulfite oxidase activity and to characterize some of its immuno-biochemical properties. The Syzyzium cumini was chosen to characterize sulfite oxidase as it showed maximum enzyme activity in the crude extract as compared to other plants. Absorption spectra of sulfite oxidase revealed two peaks at 235 and 277 nm, but no distinct peak in the visible region. Crude extracts of the plants were studied for immuno-biochemical studies. Despite protein structure-functional similarities between plant and animal sulfite oxidase, no cross-reactivity could be established between the two sources of sulfite oxidase. These data suggested that plants sulfite oxidase, however, differed with regards to their immuno-biochemical properties.

Ahmad, A. and Ahmad, S., Screening and partial immunochemical characterization of sulfite oxidase from plant source, Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 2010, 48, 83-86.

Sulfite oxidase mechanism molecular dynamics simulations to understand the large-scale domain motions of the enzyme

Molecular dynamics simulations were undertaken to understand the large-scale domain motions of the enzyme. Motion of the N-terminal domain into an orientation similar to that postulated for rapid electron transfer was observed. Simulations also probe the dynamics of the active site and surrounding residues, adding a further level of structural and thermodynamic detail in understanding sulfite oxidase function.

Pushie, M. J. and George, G. N., Active-Site Dynamics and Large-Scale Domain Motions of Sulfite Oxidase: A Molecular Dynamics Study, Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2010, 114, 3266-3275

Essential molybdenum  -  Molybdenum-dependent sulfite-oxidizing enzymes

Sulfite-oxidizing enzymes (SOEs) are molybdenum-dependent and are found in vertebrates, plants and bacteria. They catalyze the oxidation of sulfite to sulfate :

32− + H2O = SO4 2 − + 2H+ + 2e

The oxygen atom that is incorporated into sulfite comes from water (rather than from dioxygen). In the fully oxidized resting state of the enzymes, the catalytic site is a nearly square-pyramidal dioxo-molybdenum centre that has three equatorial sulfur ligands (one from the conserved cysteinyl side chain and two from the molybdopterin (MPT) cofactor) and two oxo ligands—one equatorial and one axial.The mechanism for SOEs involves attack of sulfite on the electrophilic equatorial oxo ligand that is exposed to solvent, followed by hydrolysis of sulfate and two sequential one-electron oxidations to return the enzyme to the fully oxidized resting state:

VI=O + SO32 − à< MoIV-OSO3, + H2O à< MoV-OH, − SO42 − àVI=O, − H+, − e

In chloride-depleted samples at low pH a blocked form of the enzyme is obtained having molybdenum(V) binding sulfite.

Enemark, J. H., Raitsimring, A. M., Astashkin, A. V., and Klein, E. L., Implications for the mechanism of sulfite oxidizing enzymes from pulsed EPR spectroscopy and DFT calculations for "difficult'' nuclei, Faraday Discussions, 2011, 148, 249-267.

Sulfite oxidase variants having nitrate reductase activity

Eukaryotic sulfite oxidase is a dimeric protein that contains molybdenum cofactor and catalyzes the metabolically essential conversion of sulfite to sulfate as the terminal step in the metabolism of cysteine and methionine.

Nitrate reductase is an evolutionarily related molybdoprotein in lower organisms that is essential for growth on nitrate.

Human and chicken sulfite oxidase variants in which the active site has been modified to alter substrate specificity and activity from sulfite oxidation to nitrate reduction are described.

The crystal structures of the Mo domains of the double and triple mutants were determined to and 2.1 angstrom resolution.

Qiu, J.A., Wilson, H.L., Rajagopalan, K. V. BIOCHEMISTRY, 2012, 51,1134-1147. Structure-Based Alteration of Substrate Specificity and Catalytic Activity of Sulfite Oxidase from Sulfite Oxidation to Nitrate Reduction

Sulfite oxidase
Tungsten inhibition
Alteration of drug metabolizing enzymes in sulphite oxidase deficiency

The aim of this study was to investigate the possible effects of sulphite oxidase (SOX, E.C. 1.8.3.1) deficiency on xenobiotic metabolism. For this purpose, SOX deficiency was produced in rats by the administration of a low molybdenum diet with concurrent addition of 200 ppm tungsten to their drinking water. First, hepatic SOX activity in deficient groups was measured to confirm SOX deficiency. Then, aminopyrine N-demethylase, aniline 4-hydroxylase, aromatase, caffeine N-demethylase, cytochrome b5 reductase, erythromycin N-demethylase, ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase, glutathione S-transferase, N-nitrosodimethylamine N-demethylase and penthoxyresorufin O-deethylase activities were determined to follow changes in the activity of drug metabolizing enzymes in SOX-deficient rats. Our results clearly demonstrated that SOX deficiency significantly elevated A4H, caffeine N-demethylase, erythromycin N-demethylase and N-nitrosodimethylamine N-demethylase activities while decreasing ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase and aromatase activities. These alterations in drug metabolizing enzymes can contribute to the varying susceptibility and response of sulphite-sensitive individuals to different drugs and/or therapeutics used for treatments.

Tutuncu, Begum, Kucukatay, Vural, Arslan, Sevki, Sahin, Barbaros, Semiz, Asli, and Sen, Alaattin, Alteration of drug metabolizing enzymes in sulphite oxidase deficiency, Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition, 2012, 51, 50-54.

Catalytic Voltammetry of the Molybdoenzyme Sulfite Dehydrogenase from Sinorhizobium meliloti

Sulfite dehydrogenase from the soil bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti (SorT) is a periplasmic, homodimeric molybdoenzyme with a molecular mass of 78 kDa. It differs from most other well studied sulfite oxidizing enzymes, as it bears no heme cofactor. SorT does not readily reduce ferrous horse heart cytochrome c which is the preferred electron acceptor for vertebrate sulfite oxidases.

In the present study, ferrocene methanol (FM) (in its oxidized ferrocenium form) was utilized as an artificial electron acceptor for the catalytic SorT sulfite oxidation reaction. Cyclic voltammetry of FM was used to generate the active form of the mediator at the electrode surface. The FM-mediated catalytic sulfite oxidation by SorT was investigated by two different voltammetric methods, namely, (i) SorT freely diffusing in solution and (ii) SorT confined to a thin layer at the electrode surface by a semipermeable dialysis membrane. A single set of rate and equilibrium constants was used to simulate the catalytic voltammograms performed under different sweep rates and with various concentrations of sulfite and FM which provides new insights into the kinetics of the SorT catalytic mechanism. Further, we were able to model the role of the dialysis membrane in the kinetics of the overall catalytic system.

Kalimuthu, P., Kappler, U., and Bernhardt, P. V., Catalytic Voltammetry of the Molybdoenzyme Sulfite Dehydrogenase from Sinorhizobium meliloti, Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2014, 118, 7091-7099.

Molybdenum Trioxide Nanoparticles with Intrinsic Sulfite Oxidase Activity

Sulfite oxidase is a mitochondria-located molybdenum-containing enzyme catalyzing the oxidation of sulfite to sulfate in the amino acid and lipid metabolism. Therefore, it plays a major role in detoxification processes, where defects in the enzyme cause a severe infant disease leading to early death with no efficient or cost-effective therapy in sight.

Here we report that molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) nanoparticles display an intrinsic biomimetic sulfite oxidase activity under physiological conditions, and, functionalized with a customized bifunctional ligand containing dopamine as anchor group and triphenylphosphonium ion as targeting agent, they selectively target the mitochondria while being highly dispersible in aqueous solutions.

Chemically induced sulfite oxidase knockdown cells treated with MoO3 nanoparticles recovered their sulfite oxidase activity in vitro, which makes MoO3 nanoparticles a potential therapeutic for sulfite oxidase deficiency and opens new avenues for cost-effective therapies for gene-induced deficiencies.

Ragg, R., Natalio, F., Tahir, M. N., Janssen, H., Kashyap, A., Strand, D., Strand, S., and Tremel, W., Molybdenum Trioxide Nanoparticles with Intrinsic Sulfite Oxidase Activity, Acs Nano, 2014, 8, 5182-5189.

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